Deforestation in Nigeria

Deforestation in Nigeria refers to the extensive and rapid clearing of forests within the borders of Nigeria. This environmental issue has gained significant attention due to its far-reaching consequences on both local and global scales.^[1] .Deforestation estimates in Nigeria stands at 5 to 6% per year ^[2]. From 1979 to 1995 regional breakdown of deforestation in Nigeria shows deforestation by 12% in the South-West, 13% in the South-South, 53% in the South-East, 60% in the North-West, 7% in the North-East and 48% in the North Central^[3]. As at the year 2000 the forest cover of Nigeria was put at 13.5 million hectares when place side by side to 17.5 million hectares in 1990, showing a deforestation of 400 thousand hectares per annum or a percentage decline of 2.6% ^[4].Nigeria woodlands and forest currently stand at only 13% of the total land area ^[5]

Nigeria, which has a variety of habitats and a wealth of species, is under threat from deforestation as a result of activities such as expanding agriculture, logging, urbanization, and infrastructure development.^[1]

These activities attract different challenges that militate against forestation. Deforestation has generated serious deliberations in the World Economic Forum. It is insinuated that there is a link between deforestation and poverty in Nigeria.^[6] It is noted that between 2010 and 2022, Nigeria has lost 105 kha of natural forest, which is equivalent to 69.7 Mt of CO₂ emissions against 10.9 Mha she had in 2010.^[7] The need to preserve its forest cannot be overemphasized.

History and context

As at the beginning of 1500AD, history has it that all the Southern part of Nigeria were covered by forest with the exception of cities like Calabar, Benin and Ibadan ^[9]. Deforestation of Nigeria forest within 1960 and 1981 reduced the forest and woodland into two huge dispersed fragments. However, as the deforestation continued and by the start of 1990 very scanty fragments were left as parks and forest reserves ^[10]

Nigeria is a country that is blessed with ecological biodiversity.^[11] The nation is one of the richest biodiversity hotspots in the world, which contributes greatly to the economic success of the country.^[12].

Before independence, massive forest reservations were put in place; about 96,518 square kilometres (37,266 sq mi) of land, representing 27 percent of the total forest cover and 10 percent of the total land area, were reserved as protected areas.^[13] Two-thirds (66 percent) of the forest reserves lie in the savanna region of the country; 20 percent fall within the humid tropical forest zones in the south; and 4 percent are freshwater swamps and mangroves in the coastal south.^[14]

When Nigeria gained independence in 1960 and became a sovereign state, it inherited eight national parks, 445 forest reserves, twelve strictly nature reserves, and 28 game reserves from the colonial administrators. These were intended for the protection and conservation of the forest biodiversity in the country.^[15] Much of the vast areas reserved in the 1950s no longer exist, having been deforested, degraded, encroached on, and/or converted to other land uses as a result of the rapidly increasing population growth in the country.^[16]

Nigeria's wide biodiversity of 864 species of birds, 285 mammals, 203 reptiles, 117 amphibians, 775 fish, and 4,715 species of higher plants will also be strongly affected by the negative impacts of deforestation.^[17] The number of the rare Cross River gorillas have decreased to around 300 individuals because of poaching by locals and mass habitat destruction.^[18] Although much of the deforestation stems from economic reasons, it has also led to a lot of economic problems in an already unstable country. Deforestation has affected production yield, reducing the produce on which many people's livelihoods and survival depend.

Issues such as these and the subject of the environment itself have contributed to many conflicts and even the executions of environmental activists, such as Ken Saro-Wiwa, a Nobel Peace Prize nominee.^[19]

Concepts of deforestation

Determining what is meant by "deforestation" is therefore essential in order to eliminate all confusion. Consequently, several particular words or concepts are employed. These include in "land use conversions," This involves both agricultural expansion (i.e., conversions from woodland to either grazing land or cropland) and agricultural intensification (i.e., conversions from grazing land to cropland)^[20][21] "forest decline," This happens when air pollution and atmospheric deposition have adverse effects on tree and forest health.^[22] Forest decline may also set in due to diseases, lack of nutrients, and climate perturbations.^[23] "Forest fragmentation" Forest fragmentation is a threat to ecosystem that happens because the primary genetic processes of genetic drift, gene flow, selection, and mating are effected by reduced overall population sizes, mean population sizes that are going down, as well as the isolation of forest remnants from non-forest areas^[24] and "loss of forest cover." ^[25] These scholars^[26] defined the gross forest cover loss (GFCL) as the area of forest cover removed because of any disturbance, including both natural and human-induced causes. All these terms constitute to land degradation which in turn leads to deforestation. While there are different definitions of forest degradation, its common characteristics include the irreversible loss of forests, destroyed stand structure, decreased forest quality, and diminished forest functions. One of the causes of forest degradation is forest decline, or tree decline, which includes overall declines in tree vigor, productivity growth at low levels, tree deaths, and even declines in soil fertility. According to numerous studies, deforestation is the permanent loss of trees in a region that are replaced by other land uses.^[27]

Nigeria has a sizable area of forested land by natural means, including swamp forests in the country's extreme south, tropical rain forests in the southwest, and woodland Savannah in the central belt. Nigeria is one of the nations with a lot of forest resources in the world. The total land area of Nigeria is around 910,770 km2, with forests making up roughly 12.18% of the country's vegetative cover.^[25] The world's tropical rain-forests are home to at least 60% of all known plant species, over 90% of all non-human primates like monkeys, 40% of all raptors, and nearly 80% of all insects. In other words, the forest offers humans a wide range of ecosystem services, such as regulatory, cultural, supporting, and provisioning functions. These ecosystem services support various dimensions of well-being, such as health, security positive social relationships, and freedom of choice, in addition to providing the essential material needs for living. The production of lumber was once thought to be the main purpose of forests. However, in recent years, this viewpoint has changed to reflect a more balanced and multifaceted perspective. Today, it is recognized that a variety of products and services for human well-being are supported by forest biodiversity ^[28] When forests are ecologically intact, they can store and purify drinking water, reduce the effects of natural disasters like drought and floods, help store carbon and regulate the climate, produce food and rain, and offer a wide range of products for medicinal, cultural, and spiritual uses.^[29] Similar to this, the majority of Nigerians have always relied on the forest for their survival, economic growth, and environmental improvement. The availability and pricing of fuel wood are sometimes related to the degree of community nutrition, while for others, a direct reliance on the forest for survival is the only source of income.^[30] Despite their significance, natural forests around the world, particularly in Nigeria and the continent of Africa, have continued to decline quickly.

The rate of deforestation in Nigeria has been on the increase. Deforestation estimate in Nigeria is estimated as high as 6% per year of the land area. Regional breakdown of deforestation from 1979 to 1995 shows that total forest declined by 48% in the North-central 7% in the North East, 60% in the North West, 53% in the south East, 13% in the South-South and 12% in the South West.^[31] In 2000 the forest cover was estimated at 13.5 million hectares compared to 17.5 million hectares in 1990,^[32] indicating a forest cover loss of close to 400 thousand ha per annum, or a decline of about 2.6%. Forest/woodlands now stand at only 13% of the total land area.^[32] This has been attributed to several factors such as: age long traditional Agricultural practices, overgrazing, poor land tenure system,^[16] as well as fuel wood consumption, logging of wood products for export, round wood consumption, and food crop production are among the major causes of deforestation in Nigeria.^[33][34] Between 2000 and 2005 Nigeria has the highest deforestation rate at 55.7 percent.^[35][36]

In the 1950s, large tracts of land were reserved as protected areas in Nigeria. Arguably, many of these areas have been encroached upon by continuing urbanization and population explosion, which places stress on land use.^[16][35]

Deforestation has numerous negative impacts on the environment, such as desertification, loss of ecosystems, loss of biodiversity, land degradation, increased greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and soil erosion.^[37] Deforestation threatens the sustainability of the environment, which in turn may lead to risks for citizens' quality of life due to economic change.^[38][39] Deforestation increases the circulation of carbon dioxide, a leading greenhouse gas emission that depletes the ozone layer that protects humans from direct sun rays.

Public education is imperative for the reduction of deforestation, particularly on topics such as the sustainable use of natural resources and alternative energy sources.^[40] On a governmental level, focus and state resources can be directed at forest management and utilizing improved technology.^[41]

Deforesting trends

Deforestation is a process where vegetation is cut down without simultaneous replanting for economic or social reasons.^[42] Deforestation has negative impacts on the natural environment in terms of soil erosion, loss of biodiversity in ecosystems, wildlife reduction, land degradation and increased desertification.^[19] Deforestation also has great impacts on agriculture, conflict, and overall quality of life. According to the data from 2000 to 2005, Nigeria has the highest deforestation rates in the world, having lost 55.7 percent of its primary forests.^[19] Mongabay defines primary forests as forests with no visible signs of past or present human activities.^[19] Deforestation increases the circulation of carbon dioxide, leading to greenhouse gas emissions.^[43]

The annual rate of deforestation in Nigeria is 3.5 percent or approximately 350,000–400,000 ha (860,000–990,000 acres) per year.^[44] The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations lists the requirements of sustainable forest management as: the extent of forest resources; biological diversity; forest health and vitality; productive functions of forest resources; protective functions of forest resources; socio-economic functions; and legal policy, and institutional framework.^[45] Many aspects of the outline are currently not being met, and this will continue to have detrimental effects if not quickly addressed.^[46]

The Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) reported that in 2018, Nigeria had lost over 96 percent of its natural forest cover, and its deforestation rate was 11.1 percent per annum.^[40][36] This has adversely affected forest biodiversity in the country.^[47]

In 2005, 11,089,000 hectares (27,400,000 acres), or 12.2 percent of Nigeria's original forest coverage area, had been deforested. Between 1990 and 2000, Nigeria lost an average of 409,700 hectares (1,012,000 acres) of forests each year, for an average annual deforestation rate of 2.38 percent.^[48] Between 1990 and 2005, Nigeria lost 35.7 percent of its forest cover in total, or around 6,145,000 hectares (15,180,000 acres).^[49]

Much of the damage has been done to Nigeria's land through deforestation, which notably contributes to the overwhelming trend of desertification—the encroachment of desert on land that was once fertile.^[50] A study conducted from 1901 to 2005 found that there was a temperature increase in Nigeria of 1.1°C, while the global mean temperature increase was only 0.74°C. The same study also found that in the same period, the amount of rainfall in the country decreased by 81mm. It was obvious that both of these trends simultaneously underwent sharp changes in the 1970s.^[51]

Between 1990 and 2010, Nigeria nearly halved its forest cover, from 17,234 to 9,041 hectares. The combination of extremely high deforestation, increased temperatures, and decreasing rainfall has all contributed to the desertification of the country.^[52] The carbon emissions from deforestation are also said to account for 87 percent of the country's total carbon emissions.^[53]

Much of the deforestation in Nigeria comes from the demand for fuel wood. Although 90 percent of the Nigerian population is stated to rely on kerosene as the main energy source for cooking, it is oftentimes expensive and/or unavailable, with 60 percent saying they use fuel wood instead.^[54] The use of fuel wood for cooking is higher in rural areas of the country, where more of the population is concentrated.^[55] It is also a source of income for people living in rural areas surrounding the deforested areas. The extremely high levels of poverty in the country are very much connected to the issue of deforestation.^[35]

Although national parks and reserves have increased in the country, only 3.6 percent of Nigeria is protected under IUCN categories I-V.^[38] The Department of Forestry, which has not instituted any forest management strategies to lessen deforestation since the 1970s, is to blame for the current status of the ecosystem.^[44] Very few steps have been taken to lower the deforestation rate and stop illegal logging.^[35]

Deforestation puts all aspects of the environment, the economy, and the well-being of the citizens at risk.^[38] Deforestation can also lead to another issue called forest degradation. This phrase describes a forest that is still present but has suffered such severe degradation from soil erosion, nutrient loss, and/or the extinction of specific plant and animal species that it is unable to perform as well as it previously did. Both wildlife and human life are no longer supported by these degraded woodlands. Given that around 6.5 million square miles of forest are in high danger of such deterioration over the next ten years, this issue offers an even bigger threat to life on this planet than mere deforestation. Degradation is also greatly influenced by climate change, which is characterized by rising temperatures and erratic weather pattern. Additionally, it can lead to an increase in the frequency and severity of disease, pest infestations, and forest fires.^[56]

Causes

Deforestation in Nigeria is a result of many factors, including climate change (although only a small fraction), logging, biotic agents, and manual deforestation by individuals and organizations. The primary drivers of deforestation in Nigeria include the rapid expansion of agriculture, logging, both legal and illegal, and urbanization.^[57] Recently, it was discovered that Enugu State allocated 99.2 hectare of land for an international market ,twhichhas led to dthe eforestation of great forest sat Opi in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu State. The quest for better life has also led to deforestation in the area (Field Survey, October 2023). These factors that have contributed to deforestation in Nigeria are discussed below.

Impact of logging

Deforestation includes logging, which involves cutting down trees, processing them locally, and loading them into trucks. The latter is a silvicultural endeavor with outcomes comparable to those of deforestation. This process of logging involves removing trees from the forest, and sold for commercial gain. It entails extensive activities and contributes significantly to world deforestation.^[58]

When companies in a country engage in commercial logging, deforestation happens. For instance, when industries provide the global market with wood varieties such as ebony, mahogany, teak, and meranti, they invariably engage in deforestation. There are two means of log transportation. These are water transportation and road transportation. Water transportation is used in swampy areas which will not permit smooth movement for logging equipment such as loader cranes, trucks or lorries. Conversely, road transportation is used in areas that support movement of the equipment on roads^[59] However, in 1999, the Nigerian Government banned the cutting down of 26 species of Nigeria hardwood trees to forestall their extinction^[59]

Many actors are involved in wood logging in Nigeria. The World Trade Organization (WTO), multilateral banks, which include the World Bank (WB), Inter American Development Bank (IDB), Asian Development Bank, and African Development Bank, international financial institutions (International Monetary Fund), transnational and national businesses, development and cooperation agencies, northern consulting firms, and national and local governments, are a few of them that act as promoters and facilitators. Victims of wood logging include indigenous and local populations, underdeveloped nations, and the entire world.

The rich-poor gap is expanding across and within countries in the current world, which is unbalanced with asymmetries galore. The northern industrialized nations that currently control the world have set up a global infrastructure. Despite having a wealth of natural resources, the poor countries in the south have historically suffered as a result of their delayed industrial development.^[60]

The Bretton Woods Institutions (World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) oversee the international funds that Southern nations desperately need, and they put pressure on local governments to give credits with strict conditions that are typically used to settle the nations' foreign obligations. As governments accumulate debt, the environment is harmed more, and the population at large becomes more and more impoverished, creating a vicious cycle.^{[citation needed]}

Typical "development" plans promoted by the multilateral institutions imply export-oriented exploitation of local natural resources. In the case of tropical countries, the commercial interests that run a “marketed” globalized world see the forest only in terms of wood, disregarding all the other dimensions (shelter, medicinal plants, food, fishing, hunting, spiritual values, biodiversity). So wood becomes a profitable business to be exploited.^[61]

National governments are forced to support logging operations that entail the granting of concessions in forests that have been long inhabited by indigenous or other local peoples due to the vested

interests of the ruling class in the region, which works strongly with transnational corporations. The last users of products made from tropical timber are often well-off residents of the industrialized North's wealthier nations. They are at the end of the logging chain.

Although the entire selective logging procedure suggests significant harm and the loss of marketable trees, this is actually a rather modest side impact. Using heavy tracked or rubber-tyred machinery

that obliterates the vegetation and compacts the soil, the felled trees are moved from the forest to "log landings"—large cleared areas in the forest that suggest total deforestation—along "skid trails" and transported out of the forest on a network of tracks and roads.

Indeed, incidental damage" caused by the logging activity makes up the majority of the harm. As trees are cut down, numerous trees are crushed as they crash through the remaining stands. Debris breakdown may inhibit seedling growth, and climbing vines can find the branches to be the perfect support, further inhibiting tree regeneration. Biodiversity is seriously threatened due to the significant alterations that significant parts of the forest ecosystem are going through.

Deforestation is a serious problem in Nigeria, but it is one that can be addressed. By taking steps to protect forests and encourage sustainable practices, Nigeria can help mitigate the negative consequences of deforestation and ensure the long-term health of its environment.

Deforestation is fast growing in Enugu State due to human activities going on in the area. The activities include: fetching of firewood, building of houses, building of markets and lots more.

Agriculture

The rapid growth in Nigeria's population has increased the demand for food. To meet this demand, large areas of forests are destroyed each year, either by bush burning or logging, in a bid to create farmland.^[62] Farmers also practice shifting cultivation, which is dangerous to the soil and to tropical rainforests as a whole. Shifting cultivation is a farming practice in which farmers move from one land to the other after some years in search of more fertile land.^[63] A land deteriorates after many years of farming, people are compelled to explore new forest borders, which results in more deforestation.

Small ruminant farming

Small ruminant farming is the practice of raising animals such as sheep, goats, and other hoofed mammals for their meat, milk, and other products.^[64][65] It is a common practice in many parts of the world, and it can be a sustainable way to produce food. However, small ruminant farming can also contribute to deforestation.^[66] There are a few ways in which small ruminant farming can lead to deforestation.

• Clearing forests to create grazing land for livestock is a major cause of deforestation. In some cases, forests are cleared to provide land for large-scale commercial livestock operations. Sometimes, forests are cleared by small-scale farmers who need more land to graze their animals.
• Small ruminants can damage forests by overgrazing. When animals graze too heavily, they can remove the vegetation that holds the soil in place. This can lead to soil erosion, which can damage forests and other ecosystems.
• Small ruminant farming can contribute to deforestation indirectly. For example, the production of animal feed requires land, water, and other resources. This can lead to the clearing of forests to create agricultural land or to the overexploitation of water resources.

There are a number of ways to reduce the impact of small ruminant farming on deforestation.^[67] One way is to practice sustainable grazing methods. This includes rotating grazing areas, allowing the vegetation to recover between grazing events, and using less destructive grazing methods such as strip grazing.

Another way to reduce the impact of small ruminant farming on deforestation is to improve the efficiency of animal feed production.^[67] This can be done by using more sustainable feed sources, such as crop residues and byproducts, and by reducing waste.

It is important to raise awareness of the environmental impacts of small ruminant farming. This can help to encage farmers to adopt more sustainable practices.

Petroleum exploration

Petroleum exploration, oil spillage, and exploitation in the southern part of Nigeria have affected the swamp forest ecosystem in the region. These oil exploration activities have also affected the mangrove forests in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. According to the Department of Petroleum Resources, "about 419 oil spills have occurred on land, leading to the loss of between 5 and 10 percent of the mangrove forest^[68]". The unorganized nature of the Nigerian system in channeling the pipes and coordinating the environment has left many in the region jobless, with no place to farm and no forest reserve to depend on. It is expected that fuel will provide food for the people, but unfortunately, oil theft has created conflict between the indigenous and the government. Oil spills have also affected the quality of drinking water. This lack of access to fresh water is a threat to human health.^[62]

Fuelwood burning

According to the World Meteorological Organization, Nigeria is a leading producer of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and has a large reserve of natural gas.^[69] However, the high cost of cooking gas and kerosene has caused the majority of rural and semi-urban households to resort to using wood for cooking. Over 120 million Nigerians rely on firewood and charcoal for their cooking needs, according to the International Energy Agency.^[70] Research by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) estimates that wood used for cooking accounts for about half of the trees that are removed illegally from forests globally, with a majority coming from developing countries such as Nigeria.^[62] Nigeria heavily relies on wood as a source of fuel for cooking and heating, especially in rural areas. The demand for fuelwood and charcoal leads to excessive tree cutting, contributing to deforestation. Enugu State is experiencing deforestation due to the demand for firewood.^[71]

Urban growth

As a result of the high influx of people to urban areas, there has been a need for rapid development and the provision of necessary social amenities like roads, airports, railways, bridges, and schools in these parts of the country, which are now threats to the forests as trees and vegetation are cut down or burned to achieve these development plans.^[62]

For instance, most first-generation and second-generation universities like the University of Calabar were in highly forested areas, but the need to establish these schools made way for the destruction of these areas.^[72] It is noted that Nigeria is blessed with biological resources, but due to human activities, thee country is losing its nature.^[72]

Corruption

Corruption poses a significant challenge in Nigeria and plays a major role in facilitating illegal logging by both companies and forest officials.^[73] These illegal logging activities contribute to deforestation, causing significant environmental and economic consequences. An area equivalent to the size of a football field is illegally cleared every two seconds.^[74]

The illegal trade of timber and its products results in substantial economic losses and environmental damages. The increasing demand for wood products has made the forestry sector lucrative, thereby promoting the prevalence of illegal logging. This destructive practice poses the primary threat to the existing tree population. Corruption is also pervasive within government institutions, leading to the exploitation of forest resources for personal gain and power. Unfortunately, these actions prioritize short-term economic benefits without considering the long-term consequences.^[75]

The lack of integrity within the judiciary system contributes to the continuation of illegal logging, further exacerbating the issue of deforestation. Nigeria has faced threats of human health and even the health of its forests as a result of bad governance. It is noticed that the leaders are careless about the welfare state of their citizens and do not care about the natural resources given to us for human advancement and development.^[76]

Governmental corruption

Corrupt governments are often paid off by illegal logging companies to make them ignore their activities. Do not support corrupt politicians and systems. Reduction of corruption will go a long way towards reducing deforestation overall.

In many poorer countries, the lack of police presence and law enforcement means that illegal deforestation often goes unpunished and unnoticed for many years, even though it is destroying the country's economy and resource wealth.

For example, 70 percent of Indonesia's timber exports come from illegal logging. Besides leaving behind extensive damage to the Rainforest, the country is also losing around US$3.7 billion every year in lost revenue. Thus, illegal logging does more harm than good to the country.

Population growth

The rapid growth of the population and the resulting demographic pressure have had a significant impact on deforestation in Nigeria. As the most populous country in Africa, Nigeria currently has a population of 162.5 million people. This demographic situation becomes a pressing issue when combined with high levels of poverty, as approximately 70 percent (105 million) of Nigerians live below the poverty line.^[77][78]

The consequences of overpopulation are evident in the increased construction of residential and public areas. This extensive urbanization leads to the disturbance of soil, making it more vulnerable to erosion and flooding. The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) has highlighted that Africans are experiencing deforestation at a rate twice that of the global average, underscoring the severity of the problem in Nigeria.^[79]

The combination of population growth, poverty, and rapid urbanization exacerbates deforestation in Nigeria, with detrimental consequences for the environment and communities. Efforts to address these challenges require a comprehensive approach that considers sustainable development and environmental conservation.

Grazing

It is commonly known that excessive grazing promotes the vegetation of derived Savannah to gradually evolve into Sudan Savannah, given that these animals eat tree saplings, especially during the dry season when there isn't enough grass to sustain them. Furthermore, due to these animals' consumption of older tree branches and tree seedlings, deforestation occurs.^[80] Grazers, who rear cattle, cows, and other animals, contribute to this deforestation.

Fire

Although forest fires have been linked to naturally occurring phenomena like lightning and volcanoes, people are the primary cause of forest fires. Because it is moist for the majority of the year, the Rainforest is significantly more resistant to fire than the Savannah, however it is extremely susceptible to wildfires during the dry season. The majority of the trees, including their seedlings, are killed when the Rainforest is continuously burned, resulting in grasslands.

However, due to their extremely thick bark, the shorter Savannah trees can withstand fire. For forestry and agricultural operations, fire is a tool for site preparation. It is employed to lessen the amount of underbrush and tree debris. Herdsmen light fires in order to provide their animals with new growth. Hunters may also use fire to evict wild animals. The impact of fire can be highly disastrous since tropical Rainforests, which include a wide diversity of trees, require a long time to restore themselves.^[81]

Most-affected areas

From a study carried out between 2001 and 2020 by the Nigeria Deforestation Rates & Statistics, it was deduced that the five most affected states are Edo, Ondo, Cross River, Taraba, and Ogun states, respectively. However, the profile of the rainforest country profile mentioned Kwara, Niger, Oyo, Ogun and Edo states as the most affected states.^[82] Edo State has sustained the highest forest loss of 268 kha, compared to an average of 28.2 kha. Other affected states in Nigeria include Delta, Kogi, Osun, Ekiti,Bayelsa and Oyo states, respectively.^{[83][unreliable source?]}

The demand for cocoa and palm oils in Cross River and Ondo States has led to degradation of the environment.^[84][85]

Consequences of deforestation in Nigeria

1. Biodiversity Loss: Deforestation threatens the rich biodiversity of Nigeria, including various plant and animal species that depend on forest ecosystems for their survival. It can lead to the extinction of certain species and disrupt ecological balance.
2. Climate Change: Forests play a crucial role in mitigating climate change by absorbing carbon dioxide (CO₂) (a greenhouse gas) from the atmosphere. Deforestation contributes to increased carbon emissions, exacerbating global warming and climate change. One of the main factors contributing to the increased greenhouse effect is deforestation. Through the process of photosynthesis, trees and other plants draw carbon from the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. Given that few trees survive to absorb carbon dioxide as a result of deforestation, excess carbon dioxide escapes into the atmosphere and contributes to global warming. The emissions of carbon dioxide are harmful to all species, including humans.^[86]
3. Soil Erosion and Land Degradation: Forests help maintain soil fertility and prevent erosion by holding the soil in place. When forests are cleared, soil erosion can occur, leading to reduced agricultural productivity and increased vulnerability. It is known that the roots of some aquatic trees are where the majority of fish and other aquatic animals reproduce. Because there are fewer trees left due to deforestation, there are fewer of these creatures. Deforestation also causes soil erosion, which results in the loss of several tons of soil and decreased food output, as well as gullies and forced relocation.
4. Disruption of Local Communities: Forests provide essential resources and livelihoods for many local communities in Nigeria. Deforestation can displace indigenous people, disrupt their traditional way of life, and lead to social and economic challenges.
5. Soil erosion: Deforestation can lead to soil erosion. It has been established that the roots of some aquatic trees are where the vast majority of fish and other aquatic animals reproduce. Because there are fewer trees left due to deforestation, there are fewer of these creatures. Deforestation also causes soil erosion, which results in the loss of several tons of soil and lower food output, in addition to gullies and forced relocation.
6. Loss of wildlife: Deforestation can lead to the loss of habitat for many animals that rely on forests. Several plants, animals, and other species have been severely depleted, and some are in danger of extinction. For example, many plant species, especially those containing edible seeds, nuts, and kernels, have been overharvested and are now at risk of extinction. Numerous elephants that were once present in our ecosystems have vanished, and other species like hippopotamuses, manatees, and leopards are now much rarer. There are extremely few reptiles, notably crocodiles, monitor lizards, alligators, royal pythons, and boar constrictors. Several amphibians, fruits, bats, fish, snails, birds, and other species are also extinct or are in danger of going extinct. Some crops may have been lost, given that Nigeria's younger generations don't know them.^[87]
7. Desert encroachment: Desert encroachment (desertification) into the southern parts of Nigeria has also increased due to deforestation
8. Loss of Habitat: One of the most dangerous and unsettling effects of deforestation is the loss of animal and plant species due to their loss of habitat. Seventy percent of land animals and plant species live in forests. Not only does deforestation threaten species known to us, but also those unknown.
9. Economic impact: Nigeria's paper industry, which is vital for meeting the domestic demand for paper products,^[88] is at risk due to deforestation-caused material shortages. Wood pulp is the main raw material for paper production, and it comes from trees that are harvested from natural forests or plantations.^[89] Deforestation can reduce the supply of wood pulp and increase its cost. It can also degrade the quality of wood pulp by exposing it to pests, diseases, fire, and pollution.^[90][91][88]

The trees of the Rainforest that provide shelter for some species also provide the canopy that regulates the temperature. Deforestation results in a more drastic temperature variation from day to night, much like a desert, which could prove fatal for many inhabitants.

Addressing deforestation

Problems associated with combating deforestation in Nigeria are never localized because they might have a negative impact on both parts of the country. Some of these issues include:

• Demand

Divergent demands on trees make it difficult to protect the forest in any way with a coordinated strategy. For instance, indigenous people may desire to conserve their forest to support their traditional lifestyles, whereas landless farmers, miners, road builders, loggers, etc. may choose to clear the forest to increase their financial gains.

• Conflict over the Forest Value Accounting System

This is an extremely contentious issue since it is challenging to quantify the economic impact of deforestation-related issues, including soil erosion, biodiversity loss, and river siltation.

• Programs for Reforestation are not adequately funded by developed countries ===

The majority of affluent nations seek to preserve tropical forests, especially those in Nigeria, as a garden of biodiversity. However, they do not allocate enough money for Nigeria's forest preservation.^[92]

• Inadequate Preservation of Planted Seedlings

Annually, millions of seedlings are planted in Nigeria, only for them to die from a lack of basic care. Due to a lack of funding or the non-release of cash for maintenance as required, they are eaten to death by cattle, destroyed by fire, and choked to death by weeds. Some trees are even felled much before their prime to be used as firewood.

• Long Maturity Period

The majority of tropical hardwoods mature and are ready for harvesting after about 70 years. In Nigeria, there are very few banks that would extend a loan for 70 years. The majority of farmers will equally choose to grow crops that mature quickly rather than those that do so in around 70 years.

• Deficiency of Alternatives to Trees

Environmentalists in Nigeria advocate against deforestation without necessarily offering alternatives. For example, people who are hungry always clear the forest and cut down trees in order to cultivate crops. Kerosene will become scarce or expensive, which will increase demand for wood as a fuel. It is difficult to persuade the general public, especially the impoverished, to save trees because wood cannot be easily replaced in the construction or paper-making industries.

• Applications of Government Loans

The World Bank and other international organizations do offer loans for development initiatives. In the majority of situations, these projects will result in the opening up of the forest region, which will cause significant deforestation. In certain instances, government employees misappropriate loans allocated for deforestation.

Solutions

The following are ways to fight deforestation in Nigeria, including:

1. Adoption of alley cropping, planting of Timber trees, rehabilitation of mined areas with vegetation, and planting of trees by private sectors.^[93][94] The government can plant trees in areas where forests have been cleared. This will help to restore the forest cover and the ecosystem services that forests provide.
2. Enforcement of laws and regulations by government, the practice of eco-forestry.^[95][96]
3. Encouraging the use of stoves instead of firewood, harnessing the use of wind and solar as a source of energy.^[97]
4. The implementation of laws has increasingly been employed as a means to regulate logging, particularly when carried out by large-scale timber companies. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of such legislation in addressing the challenges faced by rural communities will also hinge on the availability of viable alternative economic opportunities. In Ghana, for instance, local communities took the initiative to establish a specialized task force responsible for monitoring logging activities and their environmental impacts. This proactive measure aims to ensure compliance with regulations. Similarly, the development of a regional plan, such as the Central Africa Regional Action Plan (CARAP), involving countries like Cameroon, the Central Africa Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome and Principe, and Zaire, represents a positive step forward. The objectives of this plan may include prohibiting the export of endangered tree species, implementing levies or revoking licenses of companies involved in logging endangered trees, conducting assessments of equipment and personnel in the wood-processing industry to improve efficiency and minimize waste, and supporting local communities and businesses in reforestation initiatives. However, the effectiveness of such a regional agency will rely on the availability of adequate funding, and one potential source could be a tax imposed on timber products, particularly exports, to generate funds to support these activities.^[98]
5. Encouraging sustainable agricultural practices by encouraging farmers to use sustainable agricultural practices, such as crop rotation and terracing which can help to protect forests.
6. The government can crack down on illegal logging and ensure that timber is only harvested from sustainably managed forests.
7. By practicing the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle, particularly when it comes to paper products, we can make a significant impact. Start by reducing your consumption of paper, and then reuse products until they are fully utilized or depleted. Finally, ensure that you recycle them correctly according to the guidelines provided in your local area. These simple daily habits can contribute to making a difference. To help you get started, here are some additional easy tips:
   • Opt for double-sided printing whenever you need to print documents.
   • Consider purchasing secondhand pencils and notebooks instead of buying brand-new ones.
   • Take advantage of digital note-taking methods to reduce paper usage.
   • Responsibly recycle materials in accordance with the guidelines specific to your locality.
   • Whenever possible, choose products made from recycled materials. Using recycled products not only reduces the amount of waste that ends up in landfills but also decreases the demand for wood products. The high demand for wood and paper products is a leading cause of deforestation. When making new purchases, look for products labeled as "made from recycled paper." These labels can be found on various everyday items such as books, bags, egg cartons, and toilet paper. By buying recycled products, you help minimize the need for tree destruction and contribute to reducing waste in overflowing landfills.^[99]
   • Practicing responsible use of electronic devices is an additional simple and effective way to contribute to the prevention of deforestation. The mining of minerals for electronics, such as laptops, smartphones, and cars, is a significant driver of deforestation. By using your electronic devices responsibly, you can make a difference by opting to repair them instead of purchasing new ones when they break. Furthermore, it is crucial to ensure that these devices are recycled properly at the end of their lifecycle. By taking care of our electronic devices and prioritizing repairs over constant upgrades, we can reduce the demand for mineral mining. This is especially important as mineral extraction often takes place in ecologically valuable areas like the Amazon Rainforest and on Indigenous lands without the consent of the local communities. Avoiding these unethical and unsustainable practices can contribute to the preservation of forests and serve as a solution to deforestation.
8. Practice eco-forestry

Eco-forestry is a restorative method of forest management, which is not based on economic productivity. In this practice, certain trees are selectively harvested while causing minimal damage to the rest of the forest. The long-term aim of this method is to systematically fell mature trees, while leaving the forest ecosystem relatively unaffected.

These principles are optimum for forestry management:

• Support for organizations that fight deforestation

Numerous international and locally focused organizations strive to protect forests from deforestation and apply sustainable forestry practices. Some examples are:

• Greenpeace
• World Wildlife Fund
• Rainforest Action Network
• Rainforest Alliance
• Conservation International
• Amazon Watch
• Arbor Day Foundation

Responses

In 2005, a group of countries called the Coalition for Rainforest Nations^[100] developed a program to reduce the rates of deforestation that contribute to CO₂ emissions. The program is designed for all developing countries with rainforests. The developing countries receive money upon successful completion of lowering their country's emissions.^[101] A similar concept has been designed by REDD (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries).^[102] In REDD, the countries are able to receive much more money in the form of carbon credits, which can be spent on more environmentally safe practices.^[101]

In 2017, the Federal government of Nigeria, in conjunction with other West African countries, pledged to restore nearly 10 million acres of degraded land as part of a project of the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) and the Bonn Challenge.^[103][104]

The Kwara state government has made a plan to plant 2.5 million trees to combat deforestation by 2047 in partnership with the Nigeria Conservation Foundation (NCF). The Initiative started with the planting of 15,000 seedlings in three communities: Latayi, Agboro, and Koro in the Pategi area of the state.^[105]

The non-governmental organization Foliage (Fold for Liberal Age Charity Initiative), in partnership with Ondo State, pledged to embark on the planting of a million trees across the state with the theme, "Plant a tree, Save a life".^[106]

In November 2021, Nigeria was one of over a hundred nations whose world leaders pledged to end deforestation by 2030 by raising $19.2 billion in order to halt and reverse the loss of trees.^[107]

In 2021, Nigeria launched a Reducing Emissions from Deforestation (REDD+) program to reduce deforestation in the country with the support of the World Bank's Forest Carbon Sharing Facility^[108]

See also

• Environmental issues in the Niger Delta
• Nigeria gully erosion crisis
• Fuel wood utilization in Nigeria
• Wood industry in Nigeria
• Reforestation in Nigeria

References