Buddhist Tantras

For Hinduism Tantric texts, see Tantras (Hinduism). For the practice of Tantra, see Tantra.
A manuscript of the Vajravali, a tantric commentary by Abhayakaragupta (manuscript c. 11th or 12th century CE, Sanskrit in Nepalaksara script).

Buddhist tantric literature refers to the vast and varied literature of the Vajrayāna (or Mantrayāna) Buddhist traditions. The earliest of these works are a genre of Indian Buddhist tantric scriptures, variously named Tantras, Sūtras and Kalpas, which were composed from the 7th century CE onwards.[1] They are followed by later tantric commentaries (called pañjikās and ṭīkās), original compositions by Vajrayana authors (called prakaraṇas and upadeśas), sādhanas (practice texts), kalpas (ritual manuals), collections of tantric songs (dohās) and poems, and other related works. Tantric Buddhist literature survives in various languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. Most Indian sources were composed in Sanskrit, but numerous tantric works were also composed in other languages like Tibetan and Chinese.

Overview

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Buddhist Tantric texts began appearing in the Gupta Empire (320–550 ce) period,[2] though there are texts with elements associated with tantrism that can be seen as early as the third century.[3] The earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is possibly the Awakening of Mahāvairocana Tantra, which was mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing (無行) c. 680 CE.[4]

Wu-xing also reports that at the time he visited India (7th century), the Mantrayana (“teaching about mantra” 真言教法‎) was already very popular.[4] Over time the number of texts increased with numerous Tantric scholars writing commentaries and practice manuals. Buddhist Tantric traditions draw on the Mahayana sutras, and older Buddhist esoteric practices like dhāraṇī recitation texts.[5][1] They are also influenced by non-buddhist traditions, including Śaiva, Śakta, and Pancharatra Hindu traditions, local god/goddess cults, Yaksha or nāga rites.[5][6][1]

Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (kriyā tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras.[7] Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yogini Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood.[8] Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals.[9] Some of these later Buddhist Tantras (especially the Yoginītantras) are clearly influenced by Śaiva Vidyāpīṭha scriptures.[1]

Some of the unique themes and ideas found in the Buddhist Tantras is the revaluation of the body and its use in attaining great bliss (mahasukha), a revaluation of the role of women and female deities, and a revaluation of negative mental states, which can be used in the service of liberation as the Hevajra Tantra says "the world is bound by passion, also by passion it is released".[10]

Buddhist Tantra quickly spread out of India into nearby countries like Tibet and Nepal in the eighth century, as well as to Southeast Asia and East Asia through overland and maritime trade routes.[1] Buddhist Tantra arrived in China during the Tang Dynasty (where it was known as Tangmi) and was brought to Japan by Kukai (774–835), where it is known as Shingon.[11] Tantric texts were brought to Tibet in two historical periods, the eighth century and the 11th century (which are called the "early translations" and "second dissemination" texts).[12] Buddhist tantra remains the main Buddhist tradition in Nepal, Mongolia and Tibet where it is known as Vajrayana.

Texts

Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra manuscript (c. 14th century, Newari) with a miniature illustration of Avalokiteśvara

Classes of texts

There are between 1500 and 2000 surviving Indian Buddhist Tantric texts in the original Sanskrit, and over 2000 more Tantras solely survive in translation (mostly Tibetan or Chinese).[13] In the Tibetan canons, there are 450 Tantras in the Kanjur collection and 2400 in the Tengyur.[14]

There are various ways to categorize and schematize the various tantric primary sources. The Classification of Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism differs by tradition. All traditions agree on three types: Kriyayoga, Charyayoga, and Yogatantra. In the "Ancient" (Nyingma) school, these three "outer tantras" are followed three further "inner tantras": Mahayoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga. In the "New Translation" (Sarma) schools, the "higher" classes are called "supreme yoga tantras" (anuttarayogatantra).[15] In Tibetan traditions, the most important tantras are those of the "highest yoga tantra", "Mahayoga" or Atiyoga" classification. There are also various other classes of tantric works, such as hagiographies of great masters (namtars), tantric verse works, songs, meditation manuals, and instructional texts (upadesha). The Nyingma school also has a special category of scripture which were discovered or revealed in Tibet, known as Terma. Some of these are classified as "tantras" but were composed in Tibetan by Tibetans.

Meanwhile, in Shingon Buddhism and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, these classifications are not used. These traditions mainly rely on the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (大日経, Dainichi-kyō), the Vajraśekhara Sūtra (金剛頂経, Kongōchō-kyō), and the Susiddhikara Sūtra (蘇悉地経, Soshitsuji-kyō).[16]

Many tantric Buddhist texts have titles other than "Tantra", including sutra, kalpa, rajñi, stotra, and doha. The Major Buddhist Tantras also accumulated secondary literature, such as 'Explanatory Tantras' (vyākhyātantra), commentaries (pañjikās, ṭīkās etc.) and sadhana literature which outline specific tantric ritual practices and meditations.[17]

Dhāraṇīs are an earlier class of Buddhist texts which are not specifically "tantric" or "Vajrayanist" in nature. They may be found in classic Mahayana sutras like the Lotus Sutra, and thus pre-date the development of Buddhist tantra.[18] Dhāraṇī practices and texts were part of mainstream Mahayana Buddhism well before the rise of Vajrayana, and as such, are not "tantric" works nor specifically connected to esoteric or mantrayana Buddhism.[19]

Indian tantric scriptures

Some major Buddhist Tantras and tantric Sūtras include:

Other Indian tantric texts

There various other types of tantric Buddhist texts composed in India. One class of tantric text that are not considered tantras but are several late Prajñāpāramitā sutras which have numerous tantric or mantrayana elements. These include: the Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (150 lines), the Heart Sutra (Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya), the Ekaślokikā prajñāpāramitā, Svalpākṣarā Prajñāpāramitā, Kauśikā Prajñāpāramitā, Saptaślokikā Prajñāpāramitā, the *Prajñāpāramitānāmāṣṭaśataka and the Candragarbha Prajñāpāramitā.[21]

Another class of tantric texts are verses and songs composed by tantric mahasiddhas ("greatly accomplished ones"). These songs, variously called dohā (rhyming couplets), caryāgīti (songs of realization), and vajragīti, were often grouped together into collections, like the proto-Bengali Caryapāda and Saraha's Dohakośa.[22]

Partial list of Tibetan texts

Tantric writers

As Buddhist Tantra became more widely practiced in the middle of the seventh century, pandits at mainstream Buddhist scholastic institutions began to adopt the practices and write sadhanas and commentaries on Vajrayana praxis. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya notes that there are two main chronological lists of prominent Tantric authors, the first from Taranatha's works and the second from Kazi Dawasamdup's introduction to the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra.[23]

Taranatha's list:

  1. Padmavajra (c.693), author of the Guhyasiddhi
  2. Anangavajra (c.705), author of the Prajñopāyaviniścayasiddhi
  3. Indrabhuti (c.717), author of the Jñānasiddhi
  4. Bhagavati Laksmi (c.729), female author of the Advayasiddhi
  5. Lilavajra (c.741)
  6. Darikapa (c.753)
  7. Sahajayogini (c.765)
  8. Dombi Heruka (c.777)

Kazi Dawasamdup's list:

  1. Saraha aka Rahulabhadra (c. 633)
  2. Nagarjuna (author of the Pañcakrama c. 645, not to be confused with the Madhyamika philosopher)
  3. Sabaripa (c.657)
  4. Luipa (c.669)
  5. Vajraghanta (c.681)
  6. Kacchapa (c.693)
  7. Jalandharipa (c.705)
  8. Krsnacarya (c.717)
  9. Guhya (c.729)
  10. Vijayapa (c.741)
  11. Tilopa
  12. Naropa

Other Indian tantric authors include:

  • Buddhaguhya, wrote a commentary on the Mahavairocana Tantra
  • Vimalamitra, 8th century, wrote commentaries on the Guhyagarbha tantra
  • Padmasambhava
  • Śāntarakṣita (725–788), whose authorship of the Tantric work Tattvasiddhi is attributed by various authors, but this is debated by scholars such as Ernst Steinkellner.[24]
  • Vilāsavajra, 8-9th century author of the Namamantrarthavalokini, a commentary on the Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti.[25]
  • Buddhajñāna, 8-9th century author of the Śrīherukasādhanavṛtti
  • Aryadeva, author of the Lamp that Integrates the Practices (Caryamelapakapradipa), a commentary on the Guhyasamāja Tantra, not to be confused with the Madhyamaka philosopher of the same name
  • Candrakirti, 9th century author of the Pradipoddyotana, not to be confused with the Madhyamaka philosopher of the same name
  • Sakyamitra, commentator on the Guhyasamāja Tantra
  • Nagabodhi, commentator on the Guhyasamāja Tantra
  • Bhavyakīrti, 10th century author of a commentary on the Cakrasaṃvara Tantra, the Śrīcakrasamvarapañjikā-śūramanojñā-nāma.[26]
  • Sraddhakaravarman, commentator on the Guhyasamāja
  • Bhavabhaṭṭa, 10th century author of the Śrīcakrasaṁvarapañjikā, a Cakrasamvāratantra commentary
  • Jayabhadra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Durjayacandra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Vajrapani, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Tathagataraksita, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Bhavabadra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Viravajra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Manibhadra, Cakrasamvāratantra commentator
  • Śraddhākaravarma, Guhyasamāja commentator
  • Prasantajnana, Guhyasamāja commentator
  • Vimalagupta, Guhyasamāja commentator
  • Cilupa, Guhyasamāja commentator
  • Vajrahasa, Guhyasamāja commentator
  • Santipa
  • Kāṇha, author of the Yogaratnamālā on the Hevajra Tantra
  • Bhadrapāda, author of the Śrīhevajravyākhyākhyāvivaraṇa, on the Hevajra Tantra
  • Vajragarbha, author of the Ṣaṭsāhasrikā-Hevajra-ṭīkā
  • Ratnakīrti, 11th century
  • Ratnākaraśānti, wrote the Muktāvalī, a commentary on the Hevajra
  • Pundarika, a commentator of the Kalachakra tantra
  • Sucandra, Kalacakra commentary in sixty thousand stanzas
  • Yogaratnamālā, author of a commentary on the Hevajra Tantra
  • Abhayakaragupta, 11th-early 12th century CE.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b c d e Gray, D.  (2016, April 05). Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Retrieved 19 Mar. 2024, from https://oxfordre.com/religion/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.001.0001/acrefore-9780199340378-e-59.
  2. ^ Wayman, Alex; The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism, Routledge, (2008), page 23.
  3. ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
  4. ^ a b Stephen Hodge, The Mahā-vairocana-abhisaṃbodhi Tantra, with Buddhaguhya’s Commentary (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003), 14–15.
  5. ^ a b Henrik H. Sørensen, Richard K. Payne Edited by Charles D. Orzech General Editor Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia Handbook of Oriental Studies, page 20.
  6. ^ Grey, David B.; Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism
  7. ^ Wallis, Christopher; THE TANTRIC AGE: A Comparison Of Shaiva And Buddhist Tantra, February, 2016
  8. ^ “A Crisis of Doxography: How Tibetans Organized Tantra During the 8th-12th Centuries,” Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 28.1 (2005): 115–181.
  9. ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
  10. ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
  11. ^ Grey, David B.; Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism
  12. ^ Grey, David B.; Tantra and the Tantric Traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism
  13. ^ Isaacson, Harunaga (1998). Tantric Buddhism in India (from c. 800 to c. 1200). In: Buddhismus in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Band II. Hamburg. pp.23–49. (Internal publication of Hamburg University.) pg 3 PDF
  14. ^ Williams, Tribe and Wynne; Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, chapter 7
  15. ^ Tsong-kha-pa, The Great Exposition of Secret Mantra, Part One in Tsong-kha-pa et al. (2016), pp. 63 - 155.
  16. ^ Yamasaki, Taiko (1988). Shingon: Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, p. 35, Boston/London: Shambala Publications.
  17. ^ Wayman, Alex; The Buddhist Tantras light on Indo-Tibetan esotericism, Routledge, (2008), page 14.
  18. ^ Richard McBride (2004). Robert Buswell (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference. pp. 21, 180, 217–218, 253. ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9.
  19. ^ Richard K. Payne (2006). Tantric Buddhism in East Asia. Simon and Schuster. pp. 14–17. ISBN 978-0-86171-487-2.
  20. ^ Taisho 945 is found in Volume 19 of the Taisho Tripitaka."Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō" 大正新脩大藏經 [Taishō Shinshū Tripitaka]. CBETA 漢文大藏經 (in Chinese). This is an index to the Taisho Tripitaka - nb Volume 19 is listed as 密教部 or Esoteric Sutra Section is where Taisho 945 (Surangama Sutra) is located.
  21. ^ Bianchini, Francesco (2020). Tradition and Innovation in late South Asian Buddhism: The Impact of Spell Practices on the Recasting of Prajnaparamita Scriptures, pp. 65-75. St John’s College, The University of Oxford.
  22. ^ Lara Braitstein. The Adamantine Songs: Vajragiti by Saraha. American Institute of Buddhist Studies. 2014
  23. ^ Bhattacharyya, Benoytosh; An Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1980, India, p.
  24. ^ Gray, David B; Compassionate Violence?: On the Ethical Implications of Tantric Buddhist Ritual; Journal of Buddhist Ethics, ISSN 1076-9005, Volume 14, 2007
  25. ^ Tribe, Anthony; Tantric Buddhist Practice in India: Vilāsavajra’s commentary on the Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti
  26. ^ Gray, David B; Compassionate Violence?: On the Ethical Implications of Tantric Buddhist Ritual; Journal of Buddhist Ethics, ISSN 1076-9005, Volume 14, 2007

Sources

  • Davidson, Ronald M. Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002.
  • Davidson, Ronald M. Tibetan Renaissance: Tantric Buddhism in the Rebirth of Tibetan Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 2005.
  • Gray, David B., The Buddhist Tantras: A Guide, New York, 2023, Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197623831.003.0001
  • Gray, David. The Cakrasamvara Tantra: A Study and Annotated Translation. New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies, 2007.
  • Hodge, Stephen. The Mahā-Vairocana-Abhisaṃbodhi Tantra with Buddhaguhya’s Commentary. London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.
  • Isaacson, Harunaga (1998). "Tantric Buddhism in India (from c. 800 to c. 1200)". Buddhismus in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Hamburg. II: 23–49.
  • Orzech, Charles D., Henrik H. Sørensen, and Richard K. Payne, eds. Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2011.
  • Shinohara, Koichi. Spells, Images, and Maṇḍalas: Tracing the Evolution of Esoteric Buddhist Rituals. New York: Columbia University Press, 2014)
  • Snellgrove, David L. Indo-Tibetan Buddhism: Indian Buddhists and Their Tibetan Successors. London: Serindia, 1987.
  • Wayman, Alex. The Buddhist Tantras: Light on Indo-Tibetan Esotericism. New York: Samuel Weiser, 1973.
  • Wedemeyer, Christian K. Making Sense of Tantric Buddhism: History, Semiology, & Transgression in the Indian Traditions. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.

External links